Kveldssanger

Go for a Tilia tomentosa? Gorgeous tree. Not native, but so elegant.

26/01/15. Fact #138. There are likely very few – if any – trees of any respectable size or age that don’t have at least small pockets of decay. In our urban trees, such areas of decay may be even more common, given how they are prone to a much greater amount of foot and vehicular traffic passing within close vicinity of their presence, as well as sometimes being pruned at (sometimes regular) intervals. Perhaps, decay in urban trees is even more important (in terms of its impacts beyond that of pure economics) than decay in rural or woodland trees, because of the more significant target zones. Despite this, little research has been done into the average amount of decay an urban tree may have, and how often decay will occur within its structure. The authors of this study seek to remedy that, by providing a foundation on which further research can be done. This study sees most attention drawn towards the genus Acer (maples), whose species grace the streets of New York cities in great numbers. Acer platanoides, Acer rubrum, and Acer saccharinum are but three species of maple commonly found, and amongst other maple species they account for as much as 50% of all street trees. Perhaps their abundance is, in part, due to their selection following the removal of Ulmus americana after major outbreaks of Dutch elm disease in the 1930s. Many of the maples are also mature, and therefore the authors note that ascertaining extent and frequency of decay within individuals can be achieved with relative success, whilst being very important in terms of health and safety. To determine decay extent and gather data, the authors of this study used a resistograph, a sounding mallet, and undertook a visual inspection of the trees. All trees within this study were over 30.5cm in DBH (thus, they could be considered mature), and were situated within the New York cities of Albany, Buffalo, Rochester, and Syracuse. Because all four cities had (mostly) complete records of their tree populations, identifying trees with a diameter of over 12in (30.5cm) was swiftly achieved, and from the pool of trees (67,000) that were within the criteria a total of 480 were randomly chosen from each of the four cities – of the 480 in each city, at least 90 were of the species Acer platanoides, Acer saccharinum, and Acer saccharum (other species included – but were not limited to – Acer rubrum, Fraxinus pennsylvanica, Platanus x acerifolia, Quercus rubra, and Tilia cordata). All trees were also split up into DBH classes of 30.5–45.7 cm (12-18 in), 45.7–61 cm (18–24 in), 61–76.2 cm (24–30 in), and greater than 76.2 cm (30 in). For each individual tree, three resistograph measurements were taken (at the height of where decay was considered to be present, following sounding hammer application around the circumference of the tree and visual inspection – if no decay indicators were present, readings were taken at the DBH height; and never above 3.1m up the stem). Each measurement went to a depth of 38cm, so the authors did note that the much larger trees would not see an entire cross-section ‘sampled’, but instead perhaps only around half (which may have caused readings to not be as accurate when ascertaining decay extent). However, the resistograph is a good tool for assessing internal wood properties at a given point, and therefore it was determined that the resistograph would be used and, after a drop in wood resistance of 13mm or greater when in operation, it was assumed that decay was present within the tree being assessed. If decay was present on the outside of the tree, because the bark was dead or sapwood rot was present, but the inner core remained sound, the outer ‘shell’ was marked as zero (to factor into the calculations for t/R). Fewer sugar maples (Acer saccharum) were sampled in Albany as the city has far fewer street trees of this species. In relation to the decay frequency, the city of Syracuse had the highest rate at 61.2% of trees having decay (though across all four cities, the average was 58%), whilst sugar maples (Acer saccharum) were most frequently observed to have decay within (at 63% of all trees). Individuals with a DBH of 61-76.2cm (24–30in) were most likely to have decay, out of all the DBH classes assessed. As for decay severity, only 3.2% of the trees assessed had severe decay (where the sound wall thickness, based on Matthecks’ t/R formula, was from 0.1-0.3), though the range was from 1.5-4.5% across the four cities (and not significantly different). Silver maples (Acer saccharinum) were most often found to have severe decay, with 5.3% of those surveyed found to have a sound wall thickness of below 0.3, whereas sugar maples (Acer saccharum) were least likely at only 1.8% (therefore, there was a significant difference in terms of severe decay frequency between species). Additionally, severe decay was most frequency in trees with a DBH of 76.2cm and above, at nearly 7% – the next highest class range was 61-76.2cm, at around 3.5%. Decay incidence by species. The percentage of each group that was shown to have significant decay (t/R = less than 0.3). Curiously, this means that whilst sugar maples (Acer saccharum) are most often going to harbour decay, they are the least likely of the species surveyed to suffer from significant decay. However, the authors note that silver maple (Acer saccharinum) is a species very prone to decay, and therefore it had been actively removed in the recent past by urban foresters prior to this study. Thus, it’s low ranking for decay frequency is perhaps skewed by past management practices, though ranking highest of the species in terms of decay severity, it is perhaps still evident at how poor of a compartmentaliser the species is. Despite this, all four cities had very few significantly decayed trees, though did have over half of the tree population suffering from some form of decay. With regards to what this means for management practices, even though the frequency of significantly decayed trees was shown to be low from the sample, this may still equate to over 2,000 individuals across the four cities (of which most are of very significant size – over 76.2cm in diameter). This is certainly an important statistic from a health and safety perspective, as it means that there are many areas where there is significant risk to people and property. Therefore, it is imperative that management practices have the identification of decay extent as a top priority, and particularly for much larger trees. The research also shows that many trees do suffer from some degree of decay, and therefore establishing the causes of this, and what can be done to reduce the frequency of decay within urban trees, is required. Source: Luley, C., Nowak, D., & Greenfield, E. (2009) Frequency and severity of trunk decay in street tree maples in four New York cities. Journal of Arboriculture. 35 (2). p94-99.

^ scots pine

I do think I can smell aniseed, as well.

AYe. I suppose my thoughts were that it'd cause the fungus to expend more energy on producing new sporophores at different orientations, which may leave it less able to focus on producing spores. Probably a long-shot in terms of logic! Going to send over some samples to Kew, and leave some to remain on the tree (Martyn suspects it isn't suaveolens). However, as they're annual and most now appear largely inactive, I imagine a change in orientation wouldn't impact upon the fungus whatsoever.

Indeed. I'll have a chat with the guys at work and, at the very least, if it does have to come down then I'll ask for the tree to be dropped in one, transported to a nearby hedgerow, and placed upright on the edge of that hedge. That would retain the habitat for the fungi, and allow them to sporulate and carry on decaying the wood. If I laid the cherry on its side, a change in gravitational direction upon the brackets may temporary muck them up, or reduce the likelihood of spores reaching viable substrate elsewhere (due to less elevation from the ground).

That's a good one lol!

Oh wow, that's really neat! I had never considered it something that was done, until reading the book I referenced. I wonder what individual came up with the idea, as it's rather clever.

Shall go back and smell it on the way to work tomorrow. I confess I was more keen on getting out of there, as a funeral was about to begin! It is in a cemetary.

It's down to be felled, this tree. I guess that's off the cards!? WIll go back tomorrow and take one and send it to Martyn.

25/01/16. Fact #137. The Victorians certainly loved their gardens, and also their exotic trees – Cedars of Lebanon (Cedrus libani) could be seen in such abundance that “the traveller could scarcely pass a hundred yards down portions of the western roads [in London] without coming upon fresh specimens or groups of them.” Many also didn’t like the copper beech (Fagus sylvatica Atropurpurea), and by 1890 its planting had almost ceased. If we see a very mature copper beech therefore, perhaps it pre-dates this time. However, this was not the full extent of the Victorian era in terms of arboriculture. They also liked their rock gardens, complete with exotic and pyramidal conifers, mountain ash, silver birch, rhododendrons, gorse, and broom, as did they like a lovely ornate stumpery or rootery. A stumpery was a collection of (usually hardwood) stumps, with ferns, mosses, and lichens growing upon them for ornamental purposes (and probably also fungi), whilst the rootery was a collection of upside-down mature tree stems with their ivy-draped (or any other climbing plant species) roots up in the air. A stumpery would almost certainly be very good, ecologically-speaking – particularly if the stumps used were from large trees. Their provision as deadwood habitat for fungi, and insects associated with such fungal presence, is just one dynamic of how they may have been highly beneficial. Stumperies actually became very popular in Victorian gardens, following the first one being created at Biddulph Grange. The original Victorian stumpery at Biddulph Grange. Source: Parks & Gardens UK. Source: Johnston, M. (2015) Trees in Towns and Cities – A History of British Urban Arboriculture. UK: Windgather Press.

A book! Ordered. Hahah. Not seen this one before, cheers Gary.

Pretty sure, though can anyone confirm? Not seen it in the flesh before. Very pretty brackets. On Prunus sp.

And even if it's biannual, it doesn't necessarily have to produce a fruiting body. Conditions internally and externally must be 'right' for sporophore formation.

24/01/16. Fact #136. Within old-growth boreal forests, which are found at the northern-most latitudes of the world, decaying tree trunks are a key micro-habitat. Within the tree trunks, decay is very slow, and the forests therefore have high levels of both standing and fallen deadwood that exist in ideal conditions for long periods of time. In Fennoscandia, around 1,000 species of beetle rely on either decaying wood, or the macro wood-decay fungi themselves (their sporophores), for habitat. However, because many old-growth boreal forests have come under some form of management, which typically sees deadwood cleared, there are perhaps untold extinctions that have taken -and are still taking – place. In this research study, the authors focus on the sporophores of the wood decay fungus Fomitopsis rosea (which induces a brown rot), found in old-growth spruce swamp forests upon stumps and fallen trunks, and assess whether its decline across Finland (due to logging) has lead to a change in population dynamics of insects reliant upon the fungus’ sporophore (once it is partly dead) in the remaining isolated patches of old-growth spruce swamp forest. The isolated patches surveyed included five fragments isolated for between 2-7 years, and an additional ten fragments isolated for between 12-32 years, whilst the control areas were large patches of old-growth forest not isolated due to logging. All sites were however equal, in the sense that they had similar tree species composition, a similar number of dead stumps and fallen trunks, and were of similar age. A group of sporophores on a fallen stem. Source: Mycoweb. At each site, fruiting bodies were located and samples were taken – a total of 251 were taken from control sites, 60 from sites isolated for 2-7 years, and 44 from sites isolated for 12-32 years. These samples were then taken back to the laboratory, where they were placed in cloth-covered plastic boxes in outdoor conditions for just over a year. Every month, the boxes were checked to ascertain whether any insects had emerged from the sporophores, and any that had emerged were taken and stored either in alcohol or as dry samples for identification. From the samples taken, a total of 33 insect species were identified. Many of the species found are classed as rare across Fennoscandia. The most dominant (33%) insects identified were the larvae of the moth Agnathosia mendicella, which eat the fungal tissues, and the parasitic fly Elfia cingulata that specialises in parasitising on the moth larvae. This fly had not, at that time, been recorded in any other fungal species’ sporophore, and nor was it found in any of the sporophores sampled that contained other moth species in place of Agnathosia mendicella. This sporophore is partly dead, and may very well be the type of sporophore that insects utilise. Source: Mycoweb. The presence of the moth Agnathosia mendicella was most abundant in the control groups that were not isolated, and the parasitic fly Elfia cingulata fared similarly – as did the abundance of the fungus Fomitopsis rosea. However, Elfia cingulata was not found at all in patches isolated for more than 12 years, and the more isolated patches of 2-7 years that contained the fungal sporophores were host to fewer Agnathosia mendicella and Elfia cingulata. In fact, the presence of the moth Agnathosia mendicella was significantly lower in the isolated old-growth fragments, as was the presence of Fomitopsis rosea in patches isolated for 12-32 years – particularly when the forest fragments were small and the decaying trunks were exposed to sunlight (the fungus rarely grows in sun-exposed settings). In light of the data, the authors suggest that fragmentation of old-growth forest, and the amount of time the fragments have been isolated for, is directly related to the declining presence of the Fomitopsis rosea –Agnathosia mendicella – Elfia cingulata trophic relationship. Other insect species observed suggested similarly. Therefore, it is important that not only is habitat fragmentation reversed over time, but patches of old-growth forest are allowed to persist or increase in size. Currently, the isolated fragments simply cannot provide the right conditions for such niche and specialised species, from the fungus itself all the way up the trophic levels to insect parasitoids. Changes in forestry practice are thus necessary, else local extinctions of niche ecosystems (not just those relating to Fomitopsis rosea) may more frequently occur. Source: Komonen, A., Penttilä, R., Lindgren, M., & Hanski, I. (2000) Forest fragmentation truncates a food chain based on an old-growth forest bracket fungus. Oikos. 90 (1). p119-126.

24/01/16. Fact #135. You may have either not heard of the oak polypore (syn: Buglossoporus pulvinus), or never come across it in the field. That would be because it is very rare in the UK. So rare, in fact, that it is a protected species under Schedule 8 of the Wildlife and Contryside Act 1981 in the UK. This fungus is principally found in the southern half of England, where it can be seen upon mature and veteran oaks in old growth woodlands and pastures where exposed heartwood is present. However, research suggests that the fungus may be so infrequent that it has suffered from genetic drift (as a result of inbreeding) – only four mating alleles were found across six study sites where the fungus exists. This may be as a result of either the loss of old growth woodland stands and veteran oaks within wood pasture, or because the fungus is a very poor competitor when paired with other fungi – it grows slowly and in narrow range of environmental conditions, and simply is not aggressive enough in its competitive ability when other fungi are present. Therefore, if we are to assist with the conservation of this rare fungus, we need to be conserving mature, veteran, and ancient oaks, perhaps with exposed heartwood, and also retaining older woodland stands. Perhaps, where there is a lack of a mature or maturing oak population, veteranisation techniques may assist with the creation of viable habitat for the fungus. However, given it’s suspected inbreeding and lack of competitive ability, conservation management may be challenging. Interestingly, the fungus was supposedly found on a living beech tree (Fagus sylvatica) at Woodstock, England, in 1949. This contrasts with other sources, that states it can only be found on Quercus species. These two sporophores were found growing on an ancient oak in Richmond Park, during 2008. Source: Overall (2010). Sources: Cartwright, K. (1951) Polyporus quercinus on Fagus sylvatica. Transactions of the British Mycological Society. 34 (4). pp.604-606. Crockatt, M. (2008) Ecology of the Rare Oak Polypore Piptoporus Quercinus and the Tooth Fungi Hericium Cirrhatum, H. Coralloides, and H. Erinaceus in the UK. Doctor of Philosophy thesis. Cardiff University. Crockatt, M., Campbell, A., Allum, L., Ainsworth, A., & Boddy, L. (2010) The rare oak polypore Piptoporus quercinus: Population structure, spore germination and growth. Fungal Ecology. 3 (2). p94-106. Overall, A., 2010. Fungi Royale: Some interesting larger fungi of the Royal Parks-Part 1. Field Mycology. 11 (3). p101-104. Rogers Mushrooms. (2016) Buglossoporus pulvinus. [Online] Available at: Rogers Mushrooms - Buglossoporus pulvinus Mushroom [Accessed: 24th January 2016]. Wald, P., Crockatt, M., Gray, V. and Boddy, L., 2004. Growth and interspecific interactions of the rare oak polypore Piptoporus quercinus. Mycological Research. 108 (2). p189-197.

24/01/16. Fact #134. Nature doesn’t stop at the doorstep of a town or city. Ecosystems exist the world over, though they vary in their health, diversity, and other properties. Therefore, urban environments do have a capacity to serve the ‘needs’ of species other than humans, and in this case an urban green space’s ability to meet the ecological needs of bird species is assessed. According to past research, in many urban environments – particularly those with a low abundance of trees and a lack of structural diversity – bird species that can be found are usually generalist ones. Therefore, there is scope to use bird species diversity in an urban environment to indicate its overall green space structural diversity. This study looked at sixteen green spaces (including woodlands) within two cities in Italy: Milan (13), and Bari (3). The selected green spaces were clustered into three categories – the three largest green spaces in Milan, the three largest in Bari, and the remaining ones in Milan. Within the selected green spaces, bird species were counted over the course of a breeding season at eighty different point-counts, and the great tit (Parus major) and serin (Serinus serinus) were used as the principal indicator species – this was because both species were observed at over fifty of the point-counts, across Milan and Bari. The European serin (Serinus serinus) was one of the two indicator species used to analyse how the different green spaces investigated varied in their ability to support avifauna. Source: The Internet IBC Bird Collection. From the survey, a total of 56 bird species were recorded, which amounted to a total of 4,393 individual specimens. Many of the species observed were either ‘forest species’ (including the wren (Troglodytes troglodytes), short-toed treecreeper (Certhia brachydactyla), jay (Garrulus glandarius), and great spotted woodpecker (Dendrocopos major)) or ‘farmland species’ (including the stonechat (Saxicola torquata) and red-backed strike (Lanius collirio)). Other species observed were far more generalist in nature, and included the feral pigeon (Columba livia), hooded crow (Corvus corone), and starling (Sturnus vulgaris), though ‘aquatic species’ were also identified because of the presence of ponds (including the little grebe (Tachybaptus ruficollis) and great crested grebe (Podices cristatus)). Having analysed the data captured, the authors concluded that abundant and more mature tree stands supported a great variety of bird species. However, the connectivity between the sites observed, as well as their connectivity to areas of nearby grassland, open space, hedgerow amongst agricultural land, ponds, and smaller woodland sites not surveyed, also played a discernible role in how many bird species were observed at a site – in essence, if a site contributes to a larger ‘network’ of sites, it is more likely to support a greater array of bird species, whilst a very isolated site will provide the opposite. Parco Nord in Milan has the highest number of bird species found (38), as well as the greatest number of individual specimens observed (1,378). Source: Parks.it. Therefore, for urban environments to support a wide variety of bird species beyond simply the generalist species, then there needs to be: (1) areas of extensive tree cover with mature specimens within, (2) areas of other land type (such as grassland and hedgerows within agricultural fields, though I would posit that street trees would also be critical), and (3) a high degree of connectivity between these different land types (supplemented by larger street trees, perhaps). Thus, if an area of green space can be seen only to support generalist bird species such as the feral pigeon and hooded crow, there is a marked probability that the site lacks connectivity to other green spaces, and is also not situated within a network of a greater variety of land types. Source: Sanesi, G., Padoa-Schioppa, E., Lorusso, L., Bottoni, L., & Lafortezza, R. (2009) Avian ecological diversity as an indicator of urban forest functionality. Results from two case studies in Northern and southern Italy. Journal of Arboriculture. 35 (2). p80-86.

Hah! It was either that or levitating across the water, and I'm not too adept at either. It may be wiser, and perhaps more economical, to invest in a better camera (akin to one you have). Or, bring on that weather from New York and I'll walk across! That photo really doesn't do either the butt or the bracket justice - they're both rather massive. That alder was one big tree.

"in one way or another". The probability that they are to exist in a declined state if man ever "left" is much higher than the inverse. Let me explain it this way. If you invited me to your lvery old, century-old house (or better still if you didn't), and I then came in, trampled all over the place, took photos of everything, moved bits just to get better photos, damaged some of your belongings, started smoking inside your house, and then left without trying to remedy any of the damage, and then encouraged others to come and do the same thing, would you like it? This is what we do to nature. We always say "well nature will always exist", as your house will, but not in the same way, and perhaps never the same way again (or at least for hundreds to thousands of years). Honestly speaking, I have no concerns over what OP is doing. If he cares about it, and it is not being remedied in any other way, then why simply let the person get away with what they are doing without consequence? In cases like this, looking to shame someone is probably better than not. It could do, he was right.

We know full well that crown condition is not a conclusive indication of tree health. Particularly for much larger trees, the declne may very well be very slow, and not observed over the course of years (or even decades).

These places must get huge footfall, and as they are ecosystems that reside in somewhat of a niche it's not surprising that even moderate levels of disturbance can have very harmful effects.

Access to this windthrown Alnus ruba (red alder) was a bit of an issue – it sat in the middle of a pond! Granted, it was frozen at the time, though I wasn’t about to chance my luck by walking across. It hadn’t been that cold the night before, frankly (only minus 4 degrees Celsius). I had initially tried to zoom in with my camera to get a good photo, but was limited to only a distant capture of the fungal brackets (which I suspect are Ganoderma applanatum judging by morphology, though I cannot be certain). In a brief moment of absolute intelligence that has probably exhausted supplies for the remainder of this year, I put my camera’s lens up to my binoculars and, after a good few tries, managed to get a decent enough photo. The results are below. Catastrophic failure near the base of the stem has lead to some younger sprouts becoming dominant. On the remaining stump, many sporophores of suspected Ganoderma applanatum can be identified. This was as close as my camera could get, in terms of zooming in. Bring out the binoculars! Not a bad image, if I am honest. We can clearly see multiple growth increemnts on the largest of the brackets. Cropping the above image to zoom into the sporophore region, its morphology certainly becomes evident. From this image in particular, I am inclined to settle at least with Ganoderma sp.

22/01/16. Fact #133. An investigation into the spatial distribution of trees within urban communities of Campos dos Goytacazes, Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil – of which some areas were highly affluent (1), some moderate to lowly affluent (2), and some very poor (3) – was undertaken during the early 2000s, and sought to assess whether there were environmental inequalities between the areas and, if so, what the causes and implications were. Campos dos Goytacazes, established in 1835, was principally an area whose growth was fuelled by the sugarcane industry. On the surrounds of the settlement, sugarcane fields were therefore aplenty. However, during the early 1950s the industry went in to decline and much of these sugarcane fields were built on in the resulting period of rapid urban sprawl into the surrounding rurality. In fact, the authors note that this makes the city a good place for such a study, as the sugarcane fields were entirely cleared for construction – no trees existed before the construction took place. This allows for easy comparisons to be made between communities’ tree populations. An overhead view of much of the city. In order to draw comparisons, ten random communities were selected and then devided into the three categories aforementioned. Only one neighbourhood from the very poor category was sampled, because governments are not required to upkeep the area there as the residents do not pay taxes. Therefore, the government does not look after the tree population. From these communities, data in relation to tree populations were taken, and the results are shown in the table below. Trees per square metre (Tree·m-2); trees per building (Tree·Bldg−1); private gardens per building (Garden·Bldg−1); land value (m2 value); and neighborhood age. Note that the poorest community is left out, likely as there were no trees. From these results, the authors state that the number of trees present within a community is positively correlated with land value, whilst area age is not correlated with tree presence in any significant manner (meaning that just because an area has existed for a longer period of time it does not mean it will be more heavily populated with trees). Additionally, tree diversity (and the number of trees from each tree species) in relation to the abundance of trees was also shown to be more even in more affluent areas, meaning that there is a more equally diverse yet plentiful tree population. These results are shown in the table below. Shannon-Weaver Diversity Index (H) for the nine formal areas in Campos dos Goytacazes. At this point the authors note that, contrary to past research, the age of an area plays little role in its tree population and species diversity. Instead, the level of affluency of an area is perhaps the significant determining factor. For example, in class 2 areas (moderate to low levels of affluency), 54% of the tree population comprised of the fast-growing Caesalpinia peltophoroides, whereas in class 1 areas the same species did not exceed 25% of the total tree population. In fact, in Parque Prazeres, which ranked lowest in the study, the species accounted for 70% of the tree population. However, it was always the most dominant species, regardless of its abundance. Other species within the city, many of which were also fast-growing (including Ficus benjamina and Licania tomentosa), indicates that fast-growng were preferenitally favoured – as, interestingly, were exotic species, which accounted for 40% of tree populations. Such data are supported by other studies from the wider region. We can see how a poorer area exists in the foreground, with a slightly more affluent region behind. In summary, it can be confidently stated that areas of high affluency in the city will benefit from diverse and abundant tree populations – in contrast to poorer areas. The authors remark that “the practical result is that wealthier neighborhoods that already have access to better public and private infrastructure also have an advantage in terms of the environmental amenities provided by trees”, which of course has a positive feedback loop for such affluent areas and much the opposite for poor areas. This is exacerbated by local government targeting its tree planting to rich areas, and ignoring the poorer communities. Until the local authorities recognise that their efforts are a causal factor behind the evident environmental inequality, there is little scope for change. More trees, or a wider variety of species, must be planted across the city, with no discrimination between areas based on level of affluence. Caesalpinia peltophoroides within the urban environment. Perhaps this case study rings true of cities and towns in other countries across the world. Do arborists preferentially target affluent areas for planting, and select a richer array of species to plant in such areas, as they are more comfortable in planting the trees in such areas? Based on anecdotal evidence, I imagine so. Maybe it is because the level of risk with regards to tree survival is lower. Ultimately however, does the cause really matter, as long as environmental inequality exists? At least in Campos dos Goytacazes, there needs to be a drive to allow all areas to benefit from diverse and abundant tree populations, which would help remove environmental inequality and potentially act as a catalyst for further change. Source: Pedlowski, M., da Silva, V., Adell, J., & Heynen, N. (2002) Urban forest and environmental inequality in Campos dos Goytacazes, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Urban Ecosystems. 6 (1-2). p9-20.

22/01/16. Fact #132. Historically, trees had a marked spiritual value and thus had significant importance for religions (many ancient civilisations worshipped the sun and the trees - the two drivers of life) and for meditation. Over time the value has evolved from the religious and spiritual one, though such value stretched back even to 96AD where Roman senator Tactius defined woodlands and groves as "sacred depositories" and "revered", and not to be "profaned by the steps of men". Similar religious values can be found in Norse mythology, where the Yggdrasil (Tree of Life), an ash tree depicted growing from the depths of the earth to the heavens above and containing all life within, was of significance to Norse culture. Even in modern times the religious values continue however, such as in Lithuania where great Pagan feasts are marked by the wearing of masks to celebrate the natural world. Not only this, but the spiritual importance of trees can be seen in literature, such as with the Ents in the Lord of the Rings book series. An ash grows atop Mysselhøj, a Nordic Bronze Age burial mound in Roskilde, Denmark. Source: Latham, J. (2015) The Development of Forest Conservation in Europe. In Kirby, K. & Watkins, C. (eds.) Europe's Changing Woods and Forests: From Wildwood to Managed Landscapes. UK: CABI.

I shall be doing a huge amount of research into the benefits of trees for the foreseeable future, so it is very likley that a lot of what I write about for the next few months will be related to such a topic. I shall vary it up a bit, but just a heads up that I'll be ramming home why trees are good (and also why they may not be so good, at times).