(Arboricultural-styled) 'Fact of the Day'

[Kveldssanger]

09/05/16. Fact #200.

 

Most cultures will have their important trees. Historically, perhaps more so, as cultures are so diluted today that the only thing worshipped with any ferocity is money and power (a generalisation, yes). An interesting relationship of trees and a culture is that of the ceiba tree and the Mayans (in the Mayan language, the ceiba was called the ‘yaxche‘, which translates to ‘the first [blue-green] tree’), and thus we have to go back a good few thousand years for this factoid.

 

We must first understand that, back in time, trees were so critically important. They provided food for humans and livestock, shade and protection from the harsh elements of nature, had medicinal properties and were thus used to treat illnesses, and were harvested for their timber, which could be used for construction (or burned as firewood). Therefore, there was a very strong connection between man and trees, and this was the case for the Mayans and the ceiba tree. The ceibas provided food through their edible fruits, of which the fine silk-like thread from the mature fruits could be harvested and spun into cloth, and the seeds crushed to make oil. The species also had wood soft enough to carve into canoes, and, in addition, numerous parts of the tree could be harvested for their medicinal benefits. For example, the leaves of the ceiba could treat skin burns, swellings, and rashes, whilst the bark could heal ulcerations, encourage ‘menstrual flow’ and expel placentas, amongst other more earthly ailments such as treating gonorrhea. The sap was also used as a weight-gainer (quick, someone inform the supplement industry!).

 

A parakeet feasting upon the fruit of the ceiba. We can also see the silky threads that would have been spun to make cloth. Source: The Internet Bird Collection.

The ceibas were also important for locating water sources. In dry regions, ceibas were found where there was water near to the surface, and therefore their presence indicated that sustaining a human population nearby was at least somewhat feasible. Often, settlements were built around the ceibas, meaning the trees had a particular status, which obviously fostered the relationship they had with the Mayans. Beyond growing in arid regions, their abundant presence in the forest was also a reason for them being so revered – their commonality is probably a factor that allured the Mayans into worshiping the tree. In fact, in forest settings, other trees would be cleared and ceibas retained, sometimes also the younger ones, and settlements were constructed around them.

 

The Mayans revered the ceibas so much that they made stone carvings of the trees (known as tree stones or stelae). Where these tree stones were placed in temples, they were situated in the central regions atop the pyramid, and around the tree stone would, at times, sit four ceiba trunks. In this sense, the tree stones and surrounding trunks suggested great power and status (in the religious and political sense). Despite this (arguably very masculine) power display, the ceibas were actually considered to be quite feminine. The trees had maternal characteristics, such as how it was seen to care for deceased children by feeding them milk from its fruits, which actually resembled female breasts (in the eyes of the Mayans). The swollen trunk of the ceiba, particularly when growing within the forest, also had similarities to a pregnant woman. Some Mayan groups also claimed to be descendants from the ceiba tree.

 

There is also cross-over (pardon the pun) with the Mayan view of the ceibas and Christianity. In Mayan culture, the ceiba was sometimes depicted as a cross (usually in a green colour). When the Spanish invaded the Americas many centuries ago, this depiction actually enabled for the ‘easier’ conversion of Mayans to Christianity.

 

The ceiba cross, green in colour. Source: Travelblog.

 

In modern times, whilst the culture has been diluted, ceibas are still respected. Generally only much older trees are revered in modern day, whilst younger ones are ignored. Unfortunately, however, even at times the older trees are ignored. For those communities situated within the lowlands, the ceiba is more respected than it is in the highlands. Despite this, young ceibas are still felled in the lowlands to allow for agricultural practices to take place – an act that may have been hugely frowned upon (or perhaps banned) in historic times. The link with Christianity still exists, too, as the ceiba is linked with the Catholic Church and can therefore be found within the grounds of churches across the land (a bit like yew trees in churchyards across the UK).

 

Source: Anderson, K. (2003) Nature, culture, & big old trees: live oaks and ceibas in the landscapes of Louisiana and Guatemala. USA: University of Texas Press.

[Kveldssanger]

I don't think fact number 200 could have been much cooler!

[Mark J]

Fascinating stuff. Cheers.

[Kveldssanger]

12/05/16. Fact #201.

 

For this post, I’m doing something a little different – I’m quoting directly from a source, extensively. The reason for this is that the publication I am quoting from is the 1930 publication entitled “Canada: Descriptive Atlas“, which was issued by direction of Hon. Robert Forke, who was, until 1929, Minister for Immigration and Colonization in Canada. If you’re wondering where I obtained it, I was lent this publication by an old lady who had kept hundreds of old publications, ranging from old Post Office magazines to World War I and II publications. This text was among them all.

 

Here be the publication!

 

The publication is split into sections for each region of Canada, and I have picked out parts that relate to trees and have included them below, though within their wider context – I have not cut out any parts of the sub-sections quoted, and instead they are quoted in full (this means some bits aren’t directly related to trees). I may do them over the course of a few posts spanning a few days, as there is a lot to write! All below images are taken from the publication, and the captions below are the same as in the publication itself.

 

The Dominion of Canada

 

On lumbering: “The forests of Canada are among the largest in extent in the world, and are a correspondingly great source of wealth. When the early French explorers first sailed up the St. Lawrence River and endeavoured to penetrate the interior, they found the surface of the country virtually a huge forest, and rivers were the only routes into its vast recesses. Much of the forest, especially in the southern section, has been cleared away to make homes for the settlers, and still greater areas have been destroyed by fire, but sufficient still remains to make Canada one of the greatest potential lumber producing countries. Not only are those forests great for the lumber and pulpwood they contain, but they are also of immense importance in supplying fuel, in tempering the climate, and in conserving the water supply. For these reasons they are carefully guarded against fire and wanton destruction, and reforestation is being conducted in a scientific manner. Large areas in almost all the Provinces has been set apart as forest reserves, those in the hands of the Dominion Government alone, including parks, amounting to 43,710 square miles. With proper care, there is no danger of the forest wealth of Canada being depleted for centuries to come.

 

Government House, Ottawa, the residence of the Governor-General in Canada.

 

The production of pulp and paper is the most important manufacturing industry in Canada. It leads in gross value and also in the amount of wages paid. Canada produces more newsprint paper than any other country. The latest available figures show that 2,360,000 tons or about 990,000 tons more than the United States, the next largest producer.

 

The lumber industry is the fourth most important industry in gross value of products. It ranks first in the total number of employees, second in wage and salary distribution and third in value of capital.”

 

Prince Edward Island

 

On industry: “As there are no minerals and no large forests in Prince Edward Island, neither mining nor lumbering is carried on. Manufacturing is connected chiefly with the preparation of foods, such as butter and cheese. Port-packing and lobster-canning are large and growing industries.”

 

Prince Edward Island is known as a Million Acre Farm or “The Garden of the Gulf”.

 

Farm and Meadow mingle in a Charming Way on Prince Edward Island.

 

Nova Scotia

 

On climate: “The climate of the Province is remarkably healthy and invigorating. The sea modifies the temperature both of summer and winter. Lack of extremes of heat and cold tend to the rapid growth of vegetation. The rainfall is abundant, averaging about 44 inches a year.”

 

On agriculture: “Agriculture is a leading industry of Nova Scotia, the annual value of the production being over $40,000,000 (£8,000,000). Along the northern side of the Province, a valley, 100 miles in length, yields one of the best apple crops in the world, while peaches, pears, plums, and cherries are also grown. The dyked lands are exceedingly rich and produce enormous crops of hay and cereals. Oats is the leader followed closely by wheat and barley. All root crops in the Province are healthy, the potato far outranking the other both in quality and quantity.

 

The beauties of Nova Scotia were sung by Longfellow in his “Evangeline”. Above is a picture of the Experimental Farm at Kentville, which is greatly aiding agriculture.

 

Along the southeastern shore of the Bay of Fundy is a range of hills. Sheltered between these hills and the central heights of the Province lies the famous Annapolis Valley, which, with its continuations, is about 100 miles long, and is sometimes as much as 10 miles wide. Here the early French immigrants planted their apple trees, and laid the foundation of Nova Scotia’s famous apple industry. This great industry supplies about half a million barrels of apples every year to the British Isles, besides a very large quantity the the apple-consumers nearer home. The apple is the king of fruits in Nova Scotia, where indeed it grows to a high standard of perfection. Plums and pears grow exceedingly well also; and at Digby, in the southwest corner of the Province, the cherry orchards in blooming time are a delight to the eye, and in picking time an enrichment to the pocket.

 

The Nova Scotia Apple is known the world over.

 

Dairying is becoming an important industry. Travelling dairy schools supported by the Provincial Government visit all parts of the Province to give instruction to the farmers. The hilly country ensures good pasturage, and the products from the dairy industry have an annual value of over $10,500,000 (£2,100,000). This does not include the large quantity of domestic butter produced on the farms. Stock farming is also receiving a great deal of attention, and by the importation of better breeds of cattle and horses promises to take a leading place in the agricultural interests of the Province.

 

Agricultural education is receiving stimulus from various agricultural societies, which provide addresses by experts at the meetings of farmers, and devote much attention to improving the standards of stock. The Provincial Government has established thirty-five model orchards throughout the Province. At the Provincial Agricultural College, Truro, practical training in all departments of farm work may be obtained.”

 

On lumbering: “Pine has practically disappeared from Nova Scotia, but there still remains much larch, spruce, and fir, as well as beech, ash, birch, and maple. It is estimated that the Province now has about 12,000 square miles of good timber land, well looked after by a thorough system of fire protection. A large export trade is carried on with Great Britain, the United States, the West Indies, and South America.”

 

More to come in the following few days, in separate posts!

 

Source: Anon. (1930) Canada: Descriptive Atlas. Canada: Houses of Parliament.

[Kveldssanger]

14/05/16. Fact #202.

 

I’m going to skip right in to this post, so if you didn’t read the previous section you can do so just above (literally!).

 

New Brunswick

 

On climate: “The snowfall varies in different parts of the Province from two to six or more feet in depth, which, when frozen, makes not only excellent roads for sleighing, but is of inestimable value for those engaged in getting timber out of the woods.”

 

On agriculture: “The possibilities of the Province as a fruit-growing district are being more and more realised, and horticulture may be said to be only in its infancy. It has been demonstrated that the soil and climate in the St. John Valley will produce apples second to none grown in any part of the world; and this statement applies also to the smaller fruits, such as strawberries, raspberries, etc. Several kinds of plums do well.”

 

A farming scene in the Province of New Brunswick.

 

On lumbering: “Of the forest lands of New Brunswick approximately 7,500,000 acres are owned by the Crown, and 4,500,000 acres by private owners. The timber from these lands is of many kinds, the chief of which are spruce, fir, birch, cedar, maple, pine, beech, and hemlock, with many other less common varieties. The manufacture of these woods into sawn timber, laths, shingles, pulpwood, poles, railway sleepers, and so forth, finds employment for a very large number of mills, and their total annual output is valued at about $30,000,000 (£6,000,000). The annual revenue of the Province derived from stumpage, bonuses, and ground rents is approximately one million dollars.”

 

Quebec

 

On agriculture: “Apple, plums, and melons are produced in large quantities, together with many varieties of small fruits. Over $3,600,000 (£720,000) is realized annually from the maple trees in sugar and syrup.”

 

The maple syrup and maple sugar industry is a profitable one in the Province of Quebec. The trees are tapped about the end of March.

 

On lumbering: “Next in importance to agriculture and manufacturing in Quebec is the lumber trade. In the north the predominating trees are spruce, fir, and other evergreen varieties, while further south appear maple, poplar, basswood, oak, and elm trees, with many other hardwoods. A large part of the timber is cut for the purpose of being manufactured into pulp, and subsequently into paper. Large pulp and paper mills have been erected at several points in the Province. The value of the lumber cut including pulpwood in Quebec amounts annually to over $64,770,000 (£12,954,000).”

 

Ontario

 

On agriculture: “In the Niagara fruit belt Ontario possesses one of the most beautiful and fertile fruit-growing districts in the British Empire. Here peaches and grapes are grown extensively in the open air, and cherries, apples, plums, pears, and small fruits yield bountiful crops. Electric railways radiate in all directions, linking up the orchards with the cities. Probably nowhere else in the Empire are scientific cultivation, exceptional soil and climate, easy transit, co-operative marketing, and near-by markets, found in such favourable combination as in this section of the Province, where the highly specialized industry of fruit growing and market gardening has reached such a stage of development.”

 

Dairying is an important industry in Ontario. Some of the best herds in North America are to be found on the farms of the Province.

 

On lumbering: “Though Quebec has larger untouched timber areas, the lumbering industry of Ontario exceeds that of any other portion of Canada. The forest lands are estimated at 102,000 square miles, a territory equal in size to one-half of France. Nowhere else on the continent are found such great areas of white pine, and of almost equal value, in the marketing of pulpwood, are the magnificent spruce and poplar trees which occupy large districts of Northern Ontario. The total amount of red and white pine still standing on lands belonging to the Province is estimated at over 12,000,000,000 feet, while there are more than 350,000,000 cords of pulpwood on lands still in the hands of the Government. “The quantity of pulp available is past calculation”. One of the largest pulp mills in the world is in operation at Sault Ste. Marie, and several other almost equally large are scattered over the northern section. The numerous rivers throughout the lumbering district are of great help to the lumberman in floating the logs to the sawmills, located at convenient points.

 

A Country Road in one of the Fruit Districts in Ontario.

 

There are many other valuable trees besides those already mentioned; oak, beech, maple, elm, and basswood are plentiful. The most important lumbering districts are on the Upper Ottawa, west of Lake Superior, and north of Georgian Bay. Finished lumber is exported all over the world.

 

When it’s fruit picking time in the Ontario Orchards, girls find pleasant and healthful employment.

 

Hasty clearing of the land for farming, and forest fires, have caused great destruction of timber, but the Provincial Government is awake to the necessity of forest protection and reforesting. A fire-patrol service is helping to protect the forests. Five areas, totally 17,860 square miles, have been set apart as reserves for timber conservation and the preservation of the water supply. In addition, Algonquin Park, with an area of 2,000 square miles, contains uncut timber of great value.”

 

Source: Anon. (1930) Canada: Descriptive Atlas. Canada: Houses of Parliament.

[Kveldssanger]

Got probably two more for the Canada one. Are people enjoying this dive back into history? Personally, I think it's really cool. And I don't just mean the exchange rate!

[Kveldssanger]

16/05/16. Fact #203.

 

Case law relating to poisonous trees.

 

It is recognised that particular issues may stem from where trees with poisonous fruit and / or foliage is allowed to overhang onto neighbouring property, where animals can graze upon this poisonous matter both removed from and attached to the tree. Without question, the accepted precedent with regards to overhanging branches apply, and principally under the ruling from the Rylands v Fletcher [1868] case (not to do with trees, but instead the escape of water from the defendant’s reservoir), which stated: “it seems but reasonable and just that the neighbour who has brought something on his own property (which was not naturally there), harmless to others so long as it is confined to his own property, but which he knows will be mischievous if it gets on his neighbour’s, should be obliged to make good the damage which ensues if he does not succeed in confining it to his own property.” In this sense, as long as a poisonous tree is confined to the bounds of the grower’s property (duty of care), there is no issue to arise.

 

Since this ruling, all related cases were confined to the late 1800s and early 1900s, and relate to yew trees specifically. In Wilson v Newbury [1871], horses owned by the claimant (Wilson) died as a result of consuming foliage from a yew tree on Newbury’s land. However, it was found that the consumed foliage had been clipped from the tree, and as it was uncertain who had clipped the foliage from the tree, nor an indication that Newbury was aware that foliage had been clipped from the tree, the claim was rejected.

 

A few years later, Erskine v Adeane [1873] also resulted in a failed claim, though this was due to the death of the defendant before the trial began. The issue here stemmed from Adeane’s gardener throwing clippings over the boundary and onto Erskine’s property (which was ‘rented’ from Adeane – Erskine was the tenant), which were then consumed by sheep. These sheep later died. As the case failed purely because of the death of the defendant, it is an anomalous case that perhaps bears little magnitude. In difference circumstances, the case may well have been successful. The case does however highlight that clippings cannot be placed, or allowed to fall, onto neighbouring land where any kept livestock (or other animals – including pets) may consume the clippings – assuming, as per Wilson v Newbury [1871], that the origin and cause of the clippings to be there is identifiable (in this case, Adeane’s gardener was the culprit).

 

Erskine v Adeane [1873] is also interesting because the claim also involved the death of cattle owned by Erskine. Such cattle died as a result of grazing upon foliage of a yew tree whose branches were overhanging onto the land under the control of Erskine, though not before they had also entered Adeane’s land (through a gap in the boundary fence) to graze upon both branches and clippings of the yew. In this matter too, the claim failed, because the judge determined that Erskine should have, prior to ‘entering’ Adeane’s land from who he was renting, identified the presence and subsequent hazardous nature of the yew trees for his livestock. Furthermore, Adeane was, in light of the contractual agreement between both parties, not mandated to fence off his land, and therefore Erskine should have safeguarded his cattle in this sense as well. By a similar token, the claimant’s case in the instance of Cheater v Cater [1914], which saw overhanging yew branches being grazed upon by livestock, also failed. This was because, much like the contractual agreement between the aforementioned case, the claimant should have identified the yew trees at the time of entering the land and using it for his own purposes. As succinctly put by the judge, “in a case of this kind the tenant takes the land demised as it is, and therefore if the tenant here took the land with the yew trees growing over it so that his cattle could eat of the branches and they did eat, he cannot complain.”

 

However, during a near identical incident during the same time period (in relation to the fencing of land, as set out in Erskine v Adeane [1873]) in Lawrence v Jenkins [1873], as Jenkins was under duty to fence his land, even in spite of it being broken by a third party, damages were awarded to the claimant. From this, one can ascertain that whoever is responsible for looking after a boundary (in terms of fencing, where livestock are present) where poisonous trees reside will, if there is an accident, be held liable for the injury or death of livestock that have consumed such poisonous materials originating from the trees.

 

Arguably the most significant case applying to poisonous trees is that of Crowhurst v Amersham Burial Ground [1878]. The defendants planted a yew tree on their own land and about four feet from the boundary fence. In the throes of time, as the tree grew, some of the branches grew towards and then over the boundary fence. Parts of the tree consequently became accessible to the claimant’s horse, which was grazing in the adjoining field (including upon these overhanging branches). As a result of this, the horse died, and the claimant brought an action for damages against the burial ground. It was held that, because the defendants had allowed the tree to grow over the boundary that they were consequently responsible, particularly given the fact they should have known that horses will frequently browse on yew foliage within their reach. This ruling in fact followed on from the precedent established in Rylands v Fletcher [1866], which was that if a person brings on to his or her land something which is dangerous or harmful and he allows it to escape, he will be held liable for any injury which may result. However, the case’s judge did state that, if the tree had not been poisonous, then the claimant would have not necessarily had a case, and would instead have had to abate the nuisance (overhang) his or herself.

 

Following on from Crowhurst v Amersham Burial Ground [1878], the case of Ponting v Noakes [1894] arose. In this scenario, a horse owned by Ponting died as a result of consuming foliage of a yew tree, though there was uncertainty over exactly from which yew the horse had grazed – scope existed for the horse to have eaten from yew trees owned either by Ponting (a yew bush), Noakes, or a third party (known as H). However, because a veterinary surgeon had suggested that, in their professional opinion, the yew tree owned by Noakes was most likely to be the cause, it was held that Noakes’ tree did indeed cause the death of the horse (including at appeal). However, because the land between the two land owners was separated by a ditch, and also a fence on Noakes’ side of the ditch, when compiled with the fact that the yew branches were not actually encroaching onto Ponting’s land, his horse must have been trespassing onto Noakes’ land in order to consume the yew foliage. Therefore, Noakes was not actually found liable (including at appeal).

 

 

 

If I have missed anything, please add it below in a comment.

[Kveldssanger]

17/05/16. Fact #204.

 

The cedar of Lebanon was well-regarded and certainly well-respected in ancient times, and was therefore used for the most prestigious of developments that would have been fit for royalty. Therefore, when looking at the accounts regarding the construction of the Temple of Solomon (used to worship Yahweh and to hold the Ark of the Covenant, amongst other things) and some surrounding buildings, during a period in between the decline in the power of the Egyptian Empire and the rise of another, it is not at all surprising that the timber of this tree featured so readily.

 

The temple, it is suspected, was erected, near to Jerusalem, during the tenth century before Jesus’s birth (999-900 BCE), under decree of Solomon, who was, after his father David, the king of the kingdoms of Israel and Judah. The period in which father and son reigned was a politically stable one that lacked any marked superpower, and thus the construction of the temple was feasible. Originally, the idea had been his father’s, though as David had been unable to built the temple in his era, Solomon was responsible for overseeing the project.

 

Probably not surprisingly, the temple and outbuildings were to be made generally from stone, as stone is incredibly durable. However, the roof and the cladding works (in the interior and exterior), as well as the doors and columns, and other furniture, needed to be made from wood. Geographically, the area in which Solomon reigned was in possession of a bountiful supply of timber, largely cypress and pine, though the wood of these two species lacked the importance fit for a true king. Therefore, Solomon sought to source the wood of a more fitting tree species, and the cedar of Lebanon ticked all of the necessary boxes. The only problem was that the area didn’t have any cedars of Lebanon, and therefore Solomon turned to his friend, the king of Tyre, for assistance.

 

At the time, the king of Tyre controlled the area of Sidon, where the cedar of Lebanon’s most southern range extended to. Therefore, the timber could be sourced from there (and would be felled by Sidonians), and transported to the construction site of the temple near Jerusalem, by river. Indeed, this was the agreement, though the King of Tyre requested that, in return for this assistance, Solomon provide food for the king’s household.

 

The Forest of the Cedars of God, a forest full of Cedrus libani. The forest has a long history of being used by man for timber. Source: Wikimedia Commons.

 

Solomon also had specific requirements for the dimensons of the timber. Because the temple was to be 90 x 30 x 45 feet, and the vestibule (a hallway between the outer entrance doors and the inner temple doors) 15 x 30 feet, the timber had to be cut to size. This was, it is suspected, done by the men of both the King of Tyre and Solomon. Sizes did of course vary, as planks had to be cut to size to construct the roof beams, though also the interior and exterior walls, largest doors, and the altar within the temple to support the Ark of the Covenant. Outbuildings were also to be furnished with cedar wood, and the aptly named House of the Forest of Lebanon, which was actually larger in size than the temple itself, at 150 x 75 x 45 feet, was to be constructed with the timber (as well as stone). Nearby, another building known as the Hall of Judgement was also clad with cedar wood panels. Beyond these buildings, it is suspected that Solomon obtained the timber of the cedar for other important buildings, such as stables for horses and store houses for chariots.

 

Beyond the wood of the cedar, the temple and outbuildings were also furnished with the timber of other tree species. Timber of the cypress (Cupressus sempervirens) was, for instance, used for the floor boards, though there is also a possibility that the flooring was instead furnished with the wood of the junpier. The wood of the wild olive was also used in the temple, for making the door frames, and also producing two 15 foot high cherubiums within the temple’s inner sanctuary, where the Ark of the Covenant was held.

 

An overview of how the Temple of Solomon and the other buildings would have been dituated. Source: Wikimedia Commons.

 

Unfortunately, the construction of this temple and its outer buildings was very costly, and the investment into the Jerusalem area was to the detriment of the rest of the kingdom. Furthermore, as the cedar wood was all imported from Sidon, there was a risk of the buildings looking less Jewish and more Phoenician (the region in which Tyre was a city). Of course, this didn’t really matter (long-term) as the temple was destroyed a few centuries after, following the fall of the city of Jerusalem in 587 BC.

 

Source: Meiggs, R. (1982) Trees and Timber in the Ancient Mediterranean World. UK: Oxford University Press.

[Kveldssanger]

22/05/16. Fact #205.

 

Here is a link to the second part of this thread, in which there is a link to the first part. Again, jumping right into this post, we shall be. This is the third and final part of this post series.

 

Manitoba

 

In lumbering: “Northern Manitoba is forest-clad as far north as the 60th parallel. The eastern portion shares the forest growth that covers Northwestern Ontario. Birch, spruce, poplar, jack pine, and tamarac flourish in a virgin forest, and supply the sawmills which have been established at many points. In the west and southwest there are timbered areas on the hills and along the river banks.”

 

On sport: “Considerable number of elk, moose, and jumping deer are found in the Province, and in the forests and hills the bear, wolf, lynx, fox, marten, beaver, and other fur-bearing animals have their haunts.”

 

 

Saskatchewan

 

On the Province as a whole: “North of the rolling prairies are extensive forest tracts, thinning off as the northern boundary of the Province is approached.” / “A little further north [from the southern strip of the Province] are the park lands; and well they deserve their name. Even here there is plenty of open prairie, where the new settler can put in his plough and run a long furrow without having to clear anything away first; but there are also innumerable little ‘bluffs’ or coppices of birch and poplar, which are very useful not only in providing fuel, but also in sheltering the house and live stock, and to some extent the crops, from the wind.”

 

A picturesque spot near Regina, Saskatchewan.

 

On lumbering: “The lumbering district of Saskatchewan lies north of Prince Albert. Spruce, larch, jack-pine, white and black poplar, and white birch are the most common trees. Much of this timber is used for railway sleepers and to meet the demand of the farmers and settlers throughout the Province. In the northern section of Saskatchewan the Dominion Government has set aside a number of large areas as forest reserves, not only with the purpose of conserving the timber supply, but also ‘of keeping up a permanent supply of water at the fountain-head of streams which radiate from various centres in every direction’."

 

On fur trading: “The forests of the north still abound in fur-bearing animals, the principal being bear, otter, beaver, marten, wolf, and mink. Prince Albert and Battleford are the leading centres of the fur trade. The annual output is valued at over $1,620,000 (£324,000).”

 

On sport: “Northern Saskatchewan is still largely the haunt of the sportsmen. Lakes, rivers, and forests abound, and the keen hunter finds rare sport in this home of the fur-bearing animals.”

 

 

Alberta

 

On lumbering: “Building material and fuel in unlimited quantities are procurable in the forests of Northern Alberta, for the timber lands extend hundreds of miles on the north side of the Saskatchewan River. The poplar, birch, pine, white and black spruce, Douglas fir and larch, are among the trees contained in these great forest belts. South of the North Saskatchewan the timber is principally cottonwood and poplar, except in the foothills and river valleys, where considerable spruce is found. Sawmills are located at various points. Over 26,000 square miles of territory have been set aside as forest reserves and Dominion parks.”

 

The Valley of the Ten Peaks, Rocky Mountains, Alberta.

 

On sport: “In the mountain section of the Province large areas have been set apart by the Dominion Government for forest and game preservation and for recreation. Good roads have been built through these reservations and they are carefully guarded against both fire and illicit hunting.”

 

There are many places in Western Canada similar to this, where nature lends attractiveness and offers useful shelter, water and feed.

 

Bird’s eye view of Edmonton, Alberta. (Look at all the trees!)

 

 

British Columbia

 

On agriculture: “The fruit growers of the Province have won distinction by the size and flavour of their products, and the fame of Southern British Columbia as a fruit country is now world-wide. Apples, grapes, apricots, peaches, and plums are grown to perfection; also strawberries, cherries, and many other small fruits.”

 

Orchards in the Okanagan Valley, British Columbia, one of the most productive fruit-growing districts in the world.

 

On lumbering: “In timber British Columbia has its greatest asset, for, however rich a country may be in mineral wealth, the latter is always a definite quantity and is subject some day to exhaustion, but properly conserved and developed, timber is inexhaustible. The value of the manufactured timber is over $55,365,000 (£11,073,000), and the forests are growing about four times as fast as they are being cut. The present commercial stand of timber exceeds 336,000 billion feet.

 

Where mountain peaks and island-dotted placid lakes form a delightful environment.

 

Throughout the coast region, and in a lesser degree the wet belts of the interior, there are great stands of Douglas fir, hemlock, red and yellow cedar, spruce, larch, and commercial pines. The hardwoods, such as oak, maple, and alder, are inconsiderable and commercially negligible. The coniferous trees grow to unusual size and height. Douglas firs, cedars, and spruce eight to ten feet in diameter are not unusual in the coast regions, while there are individual specimens, 300 feet high, with girth from 50 to 55 feet.

 

Some giant cedars in British Columbia, a province with billions of feet of commercial timber.

Sawmills are located all over the Province, both on the coast and in the interior. There is a constant demand for British Columbia timber in the Prairie Provinces, and large quantities are exported to the United Kingdom, the Orient, South America, Africa, and Australia. The cedar cut is mainly manufactured into shingles, which form an important part of the export trade. From the spruce is manufactured pulp and paper, an important industry.”

 

 

Yukon and Northwest Territory

 

On lumbering: “Much of the Territory is well wooded with fair sized timber. The principal trees are white and black spruce. The timber cut is used for home consumption. There are three large forest zones, and a treeless area along the Arctic slope.”

 

Source: Anon. (1930) Canada: Descriptive Atlas. Canada: Houses of Parliament.

[Kveldssanger]

Taking a break from these for a short while. Reading and writing a lot on trees and religions, and it's taking up much of my spare time right now!